Functional Styles

Scientific prose styleOratorical sub-stylePublicistic styles Pragmatic aimto prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena. is to exert influence on public opinion, to convince the listener that the interpretation given by the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well. o exert influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essay or article not merely by logical argumentation, but by emotional appeal as well Situation of applicationThe genre of scientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in its o ral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc. The oratorical sub- style is used in public speeches on political and social problems of the day, in orations and addresses on solemn occasions as public weddings, funerals and jubilees, in sermons and debates and also in the speeches of counsel and judges in courts of law. The publicistic style is used in public speeches and printed public works which are addressed to a broad audience and devoted to important social or political events, public problems of cultural or moral character.Phonological featuresA group of some learned words drawn from the Romance languages and, though fully adapted to the English phonetic system, some of them continue to sound singularly foreign. Their very sound seems to create complex associations: deleterious, emollient, incommodious, meditation, illusionary. Use of exclamations to attract listener’s attention. Use of a strong rhythm and a clear rising + falling intonatio n sequence, convey a sense of rhetorical power, structural control, and semantic completeness.They are widely used in formal writing. And they are especially common in political speeches, where the third item provides a climax of expression which can act as a cue for applause. Use of exclamations to attract listener’s attention. Semantic featuresSemantic accuracy. Words are used in their primary logical meaning. Hardly a single word will be found here which is used in more than one meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning. Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided.The stylistic devices employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. An antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds. The stylistic devices employed in the oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. An antithesis is framed by parallel constructions, which, in their turn, are accompanied by repetition, while a climax can be formed by repetitions of different kinds.Grammatical featuresnominal character ( the predominance of nouns over verbs) in the use of parts of speech, the use of prepositional â€Å"of-phrases† to substitute the genitive case, transposition of the classes of nouns, wide use of the Passive Voice, Indefinite Tenses, specialization of pronouns in demonstrative and intensification functions, numerous conjunctions revealing the logical order of the text as well as double conjunctions ( not merely†¦ but also, whether †¦ or both†¦ and, as†¦ s), adverbs of logical connection ;Use of the 1st person pronoun we; 2nd person pronoun you: We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness†¦(Th. Jeffers on, The Declaration of Independence). The use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others. Use of Figures of Repetition and intensification. Use of the 1st person pronoun we; 2nd person pronoun you. The use of contractions I’ll; won’t; haven’t; isn’t and others.Use of Figures of Repetition and intensification. Stylistic usage of morphological forms. Vocabulary usedhighly specialized scientific terminology, terminological groups, revealing the conceptual systems of the scientific style, the peculiarities of the use of terms in scientific speech, the use of nouns and verbs in abstract meanings, special reference words, scientific phraseology – cliches, stereotyped and hackneyed word combinations and idioms, priority of neutral vocabulary, limitations in the use of emotional- evaluative and expressive vocabulary and phraseology, absence of on-literary vocabulary and phraseology ( slang words, vulgarisms, obscene words) , peculiarities in word- building (standard suffixes and prefixes, mainly of Greek and Latin origin – tele-, morpho, philo- -ism, etc. , peculiarities in the scarce use of imagery (usually trite and hackneyed, the priority of the functions of intensification and decoration, non-systematic, narrow contextual character, absence of rich associations, schematic and generalized character)The oratory is usually characterized by emotional colouring and connotations. The vocabulary of speeches is usually elaborately chosen and remains mainly in the sphere of high-flown style.Use of of neutral and bookish vocabulary, wide use of language means to actualize chronotop (proper and geographical names, abundance of statistics, toponymic and proper names, facts and data), means of evaluation, neologisms, social political terminology, a great number of loan-words and international words, use words and word-combinations of other styles ( especially, conversational), against the general background of the bookish style vocabulary, including terminology as well as means of imagery to increase expressiveness / trite metaphors, metonymies, personification, metaphorical paraphrases, metaphorical use of terminology/, newspaper terms: newspaper vocabulary and cliches (journalese and bookish), decomposition of phraseological units. Word-building: loan suffixes and prefixes as well as combination of words;Morphological featuresSingular forms indicate mainly impossibility of referring number notion to the phenomena which are expressed by word-forms, so here weakening of number meaning takes place, because the form belongs to the abstract nounsThe use of the singular number of nouns in their collective meaning, plural number for the definition of generalization, wide use of the superlative degree of adjectives in order to reveal expressiveness as well as the use of adjectives-colouratives, substantiation and evaluation of the use of numerals, adjectives and participles. The use of the singular number of nouns in their collective meaning, plural number for the definition of generalization, wide use of the superlative degree of adjectives in order to reveal expressiveness as well as the use of adjectives-colouratives, substantiation and evaluation of the use of numerals, adjectives and participles. Syntactical featuresAverage sentence length (7-52 words) narmal academic writing.Priority of full, logically correct, regular syntactical models, the syntax of simple sentence in the scientific speech – extensive use of extended two-member sentence, priority in the use of compound sentences, extensive use of secondary predicative constructions ( Complex Object, Participial and Gerundial Constructions), wide use of conjunctions and denominative prepositions, concise expression of syntactical connection in word combinations, sentences, groups of sentences, absolute priority of declarative sentences in the use of communicative types of sentences; Use of co mplex syntax, complex, composite and simple extended sentences, sentences in many cases make up the whole paragraphs, a wide use of attributive groups, and infinitives, participles, gerunds and constructions with them, use of syntactical complexes (Complex Object, Complex Subject), Nominal Absolute Participial Constructions, specific word order.Average sentence length (9-11words) and average degree of complexity in the sentence structure. Wide use of declarative sentences. The use of questions, exclamatory sentences for the sake of expressiveness. Publicistic style is characterized by coherent and logical syntactical structure, with an expanded system of connectives and careful paragraphing. Use of complex syntax, complex, composite and simple extended sentences, sentences in many cases make up the whole paragraphs, a wide use of attributive groups, and infinitives, participles, gerunds and constructions with them, use of syntactical complexes (Complex Object, Complex Subject), Nomi nal Absolute Participial Constructions, specific word order.Means of expressive syntax: inversions, parallelism, antithesis, parcellation, gradation, isolation, different types of the author's words presentation and conversational constructions, different patterns in the use of homogeneous parts of the sentence – double, three-element and multi-element; Types of texts (see Morokhovskiy)According to the type of discourses it can be scientific, but popular scientific style which combines the features of scientific and belles-lettres styles can also existTransactionalThe expository text type, Mass Media text type Genres of texts (see Morokhovskiy)The genre of scientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of language (scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in its oral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc. ); in the latter case this style has some features of colloquial speech. Transactional genreEx pository genre Conclusion Different scolars subdivide functional styles in different way for example the classification of I. R. Galperin, M. D. Kuznets, I. V. Arnold , A. N. Morokhovsky in some aspects are the same but in other the differs, and the same we have with the division of the genres and text types.

Personal Credo - 796 Words

PSY 201: The Psychology Major Module 2: Assignment: Instructions and Grading Rubric DIRECTIONS: Personal Credo: Psychology is a science that pervades nearly every moment of every day of our lives. To provide just one small example, consider the complex psychological and physiological processes involved in forming thoughts, communicating with others, and remembering both happy and sad memories. The very manner in which you engage (or do not engage) with others in the world around you has been derived from a series of influences on you, both genetic and environmental, that have shaped you into the person you are today. Thus, we are the amalgamation of collective influences on us, from our families and friends to our coworkers and†¦show more content†¦What do you value in yourself or others? Are there any specific values and beliefs you hold? About whom and what do you care? Strengths and Weaknesses What are your personal strong areas? In what areas do you tend to struggle? What opportunities are there for you to grow and change? What threatens you from reaching your goals or growing and developing? Future Directions What are your immediate goals, both personally and professionally? Where do you hope to be 10 years from now? 20 years from now? 50 years from now? What do you hope to achieve during your life? It is important to me that when writing your credo, you do not just haphazardly construct loosely associated sentences that marginally answer these questions. Rather, I would encourage you to reflect on these questions and then write a cohesive essay that flows fluidly and logically AND answers these questions. I want to gain a sense of who you are as a person, what you believe, and where you believe you are heading in life. There is NO minimum length for this assignment, but DO NOT to exceed four, double-spaced typewritten pages. PSY 201 Rubric for Personal Credo Use this rubric as a guide when writing your personal credo. 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The company produced its first products in 1886 and incorporated in 1887 (Johnson).Since then the company has built a reputation on its â€Å"Credo†. Simply stated, the first responsibility is to the doctors, nurses, patients, mothers and fathers who use the products then, employees, and finally shareholders. This lines up with the humanistic view of putting people over profits. As Johnson andRea d MoreObjectives And Objectives Of Strategic Planning1220 Words   |  5 Pagesthroughout the year to make sure they are on track and this cycle will repeat annually. Michael Porter wrote in 1980, formulation of competitive strategy includes consideration of four key elements: 1. The Company’s strengths and weaknesses 2. Personal values of the key management and the board 3. Industry opportunities and threats 4. Broader societal expectations A strategy is a long-term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, as differentiated from a tactic or immediate actionRead MoreDiversity And Inclusion Of An Organization1204 Words   |  5 Pagesdiversity in their organizations was so important to them. The majority believe â€Å"it was a business imperative because their companies needed it to stay competitive, and they believed it was a moral imperative because of their companies needed of their personal experiences and values† (Broysberg Connolly, 2013). Steve Reinemund was the first senior leader at PepsiCo to focus on diversity and inclusion from a perspective of changing the entire culture of PepsiCo. Under Reinemund’s leadership there led

The Crucible By Arthur Miller - 1952 Words

The Crucible by Arthur Miller was probably one of the most breathtaking plays of his time. Taking place during 1692 it talked about the Salem Witch Trials mostly, what happened, who was accused, how did it start, and how did it end. He did an amazing job describing the scenes, using actual names of the people at the time, and the actual events in chronological order. Throughout the play he also hit on a major idea during the time which was known as McCarthyism, where Arthur miller himself was accused of being a Communist. In addition with the creation of The Crucible came the creation of new ideas and new ways of interpreting plays. Themes such as reputation, religion, and revenge help people more easily interpret the play. Overall Arthur Miller has done many great plays, which sparked a chain reaction in making The Crucible and getting accused of being a Communist in the era of McCarthyism. â€Å"Arthur Miller [is known] as one of the leading playwrights of the 20th Century† (Arthur Miller). However his life wasn’t always that great. He was born in great poverty to a women’s clothing merchant that fell into a major economic disaster during The Great Depression. As he grew older he got more into literature and eventually wrote â€Å"one of the most famous political works of all time† (www.gradesaver.com/author/arthur-miller) known as The Crucible. 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Miller, the playwright, uses literaryRead MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Miller1333 Words   |  6 PagesAs the various characters in The Crucible by Arthur Miller interact, the dominant theme of the consequences of women’s nonconformity begins to slide out from behind the curtains of the play. Such a theme reveals the gripping fear that inundated the Puritans during the seventeenth century. This fear led to the famous witch-hunts that primarily terrorized women who deviated from the Puritan vision of absolute obedience and orthodoxy. Arthur Miller presents his interpretation of the suffering by subtlyRead MoreThe Crucible By Arthur Miller1145 Words   |  5 PagesUnbalance Through The Centuries In Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, the author reflects the persecution of communists in America in the 1950’s through a recount of the Salem witch trials. 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Female Power, Maternity and Genderbending in...

Female Power, Maternity and Genderbending in Shakespeares Antony and Cleopatra The 19th century essayist and literary critic William Hazlitt wrote of Cleopatra, She is voluptuous, ostentatious, conscious, boastful of her charms, haughty, tyrannical, [and] fickle, which are great and unpardonable faults (Hazlitt 2-3). Much of the criticism of Antony and Cleopatra has recycled this judgement, depicting Cleopatra as a villainess uses her eroticism and sexuality to motivate Antony to seek power. Cleopatra is memorable for her propensity for violence as well. While Antony and Cleopatra was written after the death of a violent English queen, Elizabeth I, Shakespeare may have been faced with a dramatic dilemma: how to make a woman†¦show more content†¦The binary oppositions of masculine and feminine are thus personified by Caesar and Cleopatra, not by Antony, whose men often regard him as the pawn of the deceptive queen and thus not a real man. On the contrary, Robert Miola says, Caesars sense of purpose and public responsibility directly opposes Cleopatras l ove of idleness and luxury (129), a conclusion supported by the fact that it is Caesar who, after the deaths of Antony and Cleopatra, provides some closure to the political chaos that has dominated the play. Such an assertion--that the danger of Cleopatras sexuality lies in her Egyptian surroundings--requires further detail here. The Orient represented a strange, but terrifyingly fascinating world to the Elizabethans. While it was decidedly inferior and politically weak, the Orient also held a dangerous mystique. As Lucy Hughes-Hallett attests, poets, playwrights, historians and artists have found the idea of Cleopatras foreignness, or otherness, a suitable method by which to explain away her dangerous sexuality. In other words, the fact that Cleopatra effectively seduced and influenced two powerful Roman men baffled Western thinkers who could only explain it by attributing it to her foreignness or otherness. Not surprisingly, Shakespeare succumbs to a similar artistic temptation. In the first ten lines of the play, the surrender of Roman dignity to Egyptian passion is made clear. Philo regretfully tells Demetrius how Those his

Rap up the Violence free essay sample

Money is often an issue for teens so they turn to committing crimes to obtain the things they see rapper wearing. In The Music of Violence by John Lingua , it says, many law-enforcement agents say the rap scene stokes gang life, gunplay and bloodletting. The article also says that the makers of the videos and the music insist culture doesnt cause crime, It only documents It. Rap music and videos became popular in the asss, and as history has shown violence was running rampant way before rap hit the scene. In todays society gangs are almost the norm.Low income families sometimes rely on the income that is created by gang violence in order to survive. It is a misconception that young people look up or condone the behavior on rap videos, when really its that they relate to It. In Brent Staples article The Hip-Hop Media he states that female rapper I-II Kim went to Jail for not cooperating with the police. When asked about an incident Involving members of her record label All Kim, according to The Hip-Hop Media, misremembered the events of shootout that took happened at the popular radio station Hot 97 . On the streets not snitching is like an unspoken code. It is not necessarily admiration these teenagers feel, but maybe a sense of being able to relate. Rap music is taking the blame for everything. In the article Study Raps Rap Vided It says that young girls try to emulate what they see on rap videos. Fashion magazines ,TV, and movies have Just as much of a negative affect on young girls as rap music. Many girls today are harming their selves in order to look like the celebrities. The images that Brittany Spears, Lindsey Loan, and Paris Hilton portray are Just as harmful as the lyrics in some rap songs. In the song Ignorant Sit by paper Jay Z he raps Surface the movie did more than Surface the rapper to me. Still that mint the blame for all the sit that happened to me . Are you say what Im spitting, Is worse than these celebrants showing their kitten, are you kidding? Lets stop the bulletin till we all without sin, lets quit the pulpit-Ins. If we are going to hold one form of entertainment responsible for our youths actions and values we should hold them all responsible. The Capital Journal article Hip-Hops Rap Sheet hit the nail on the head by saying rap is a scapegoat for a bigger problem.There are many different kinds of rap music. Some of it is not meant for the immature mind, It is the parents responsibility to determine the maturity level of todays to covet what they see. If rap videos and violent games are all teenagers see, that becomes the role model. With guidance teenagers will distinguish what is reality and what is parameterized for entertainment value. When raising children parents have a responsibility to plant the seed, water the seed, and nurture that seed until it has matured.If good morals and values are instilled in teenagers by the parents rap sic can have the value it is meant to have, entertainment. Belgrade, Squeamish. Youth Violence Regencies. Com. 15 Par. 2008. In this article the author Squeamish Belgrade, Jar. Is states that the term black on black violence, has been change by the media to a more generic term youth violence. as a new approach toward old problem, rather than blaming wayward marginalia communities. He is saying in laymans terms he is saying that this problem has spread from the urban common unities to the suburban communities.Carter, Shawn. Ignorant SSH*T. By Jay Z. Race. Novo. 2007. Ignorant SSH*T. Deaf Jam Recordings, November 2007. This song is talking about people hating Lousy) on Jay Z because of his popularity and success. It also tells how the media says that rap music has a negative affect on the youth. Jay Z states that some movies had more of an affect on him than some rap songs. Also how celebrates do negative things and the media glorifies it Dotting, Randy Study Raps Rap Videos. Healthful News Reporter. 6 Mar. 2006. 25 Par. 008. This articles talks about how Rap music has a negative affect on teenage girls. It tells that girls who watch a high percent of rap videos are ore likely to get in trouble and to contract Studs than girls who watch little or no rap videos. Hip-Hops Rap Sheet. Capital Journal Online. 24 Jan. 2008. 25 Par. 2008 . This editorial is talking about condemning Gangster Rap. It also talks on that may rap music is a scapegoat for a bigger problem in society. How prohibiting Rap music it may create a bigger problem.This editorial hit home because it is written in a newspaper that is close to home, Topeka. Hopkins, Joe C. Gangster Rap. Pasadena Journal. 31 Cot. 2003. 15 Par. 2008. The editorial is talking about Black on Black crime. How the US was so upset when a white police officer slammed a young black man on the hood of a car, no one gets upset with the daily killings in the big cities of young black men by other black men. It also talks about how some rapper promote their image as thugs or pimps. Lingua, John. The Music of violence. palmettos. Mom. 11 June 2007. 23 Par. 2008 . This article talks about how rap videos that are shot in neighborhoods has a negative affect on that neighborhood. How shooting in low income communities only fed in to the stereotype about urban street violence. Micrometer, John H. How Hip- Hop Hold Blacks Back. City Journal. 10 June 2003. 25 Par. 2008. This editorial is manly about how Rap evolved from fun loving dance music to gangster music. It also talks about how black teenagers, mostly male, live their live according to the lyrics in rap music.Reed, William. Rap, Records, Revenues, and Refrain. The Washington Informer. 3 May 207. 15 Par. 2008. This editorial is about how more than a decade after C. Dolores Tucker complained about the offence language in rap music the language is still there. In this article the controversy is weather rap music is part of the First Amendment. Staples, Brent. The Hip-Hop Media- a World Where Really addressing the imprisonment of the rapper Ill Kim for misremembering fact surrounding a case involving members of her rap label.The article does not say that rap music causes violence among teenagers it talk more about one rapper in particular, Ill Kim Staples, Brent. How Hip Hop Music Lost. New York Mimes. 12 May 2005. 25 Par. 2008. This article talks about how the rap music is not only causing violence among teenagers, but that rappers themselves are dying because of so called beefing. Beefing is when two rappers or rap group make song that speak actively about another rapper ore group.

The Driving Way Essay Research Paper Selecting free essay sample

The Driving Way Essay, Research Paper Choosing a calling way is the easiest determination one can do ; I have chosen five in the nine old ages since high school. The job is choosing a way and following it to completion. When I returned to school for my most recent calling way, I worked difficult and did good for the first several months. Then, I started remaining out tardily with a immature lady, and the sum of clip that I applied to school decreased by an order of magnitude. After several hebdomads with her, it was evident that my classs were traveling to be bad. I told my male parent that I was non making good in school, and that I was traveling to discontinue school to work full clip once more. He surprised me when he replied, # 8220 ; Do you retrieve the first clip that I let you drive? # 8221 ; Although I mistily remembered the event, I said, # 8220 ; Of class I do. We will write a custom essay sample on The Driving Way Essay Research Paper Selecting or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page # 8221 ; Father so inquire, # 8220 ; Do you still drive every bit ill as you did that twenty-four hours? # 8221 ; Feeling one of the old adult male # 8217 ; s tedious addresss about to get down, I harshly said, # 8220 ; No, what # 8217 ; s your point? # 8221 ; After my scratchy answer, Father shook his caput and started reading a book. Although I did non desire to hear his address, I could non maintain from inquiring what he wanted to state. I thought about the Saturday forenoon that my male parent allow me drive for the first clip. He drove me to a stretch of route so long and straight that you could see it meet in the skyline. He pulled over and tol d me to trade seats with him. Despite being nervous, I wasted no clip acquiring behind the wheel. Shyly, I put the auto in thrust and pulled into the route. Father so said, â€Å"All that you have to make is indicate it consecutive and maintain it between the lines.† With male parent # 8217 ; s advice about driving in head, I carefully lined the auto between the lines and headed down the route. I did good for the first several proceedingss. Then, my head wandered, and I started paying less attending to the route. In a few seconds, I felt a clump and heard the auto hit crushed rock. I overreacted and jerked the wheel ; the auto slid sideways, and all of a sudden we stopped. I was certain that my male parent was traveling to shout about my hapless drive, but he softly said, # 8220 ; Son, allow me clear up my advice to you. It is non merely about get downing in the right way and so burying what you are making. It is about ever paying attending to where you are and where you want to be. It is about doing elusive corrections ; if a rectification is to large, it will ever direct you out of control. # 8221 ; After I pondered the old adult male # 8217 ; s driving advice, I decided non to discontinue school. I stopped seeing the immature lady, and dropped two categories # 8212 ; which left clip for me to concentrate on my staying categories. Because of the rectification, I finished the semester on the dean # 8217 ; s list. Almost one twelvemonth has passed since so, and I am still traveling down the same way ; I pay attending and do minor corrections when corrections are needed.

Definition and Examples of Testimony in Rhetoric

Definition and Examples of Testimony in Rhetoric Testimony is a  rhetorical term for a persons account of an event or state of affairs. Etymology: from the Latin, witness Testimony is  of various kinds, said  Richard Whately in Elements of Rhetoric (1828), and may possess various degrees of force, not only in reference to its own intrinsic character, but in reference also to the kind of conclusion that it is brought to support. In his discussion of testimony, Whately examined the distinctions between matters of fact and matters of opinion, noting that there is often much room for the exercise of judgment, and for difference of opinion, in reference to things which are, themselves, matters of fact. Examples and Observations Four out of five dentists surveyed recommend Trident sugarless gum for their patients who chew gum! -(advertising claim made by Trident chewing gum)No wonder so many doctors now smoke and recommend King-Size Viceroys. -(advertising claim made in the 1950s by Viceroy cigarettes)One of the Soviet Georgias senior citizens thought Dannon was an excellent yogurt. She ought to know. Shes been eating yogurt for 137 years. -(advertising campaign for Dannon Yogurt)Extrinsic Proof as Testimony-  I define testimony as everything that is brought in and secured from some external circumstance for the purpose of gaining a conviction. The best witness, therefore, is one who has, or is perceived by the jury to have, authority. -(Cicero, Topica, 44 B.C.)- Cicero stated that all extrinsic proofs rely chiefly upon the authority granted by the community to those who make them (Topics IV 24). In other words, Cicero defined all extrinsic proof as testimony. In keeping with Ciceros remark, we might argue that facts are a kind of testimony since their accuracy depends upon the care taken by the person who establishes them as facts and upon his reputation in relevant communities, as well. -(Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee, Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2004) George Campbell on Evaluating Testimony (The Philosophy of Rhetoric, 1776)Although [George] Campbell does not provide a detailed discussion of the guidelines to be used in evaluating the reliability of a rhetors testimony, he does list the following criteria that may be used in corroborating or invalidating the claims of a witness: 1. The reputation of the author and the manner of his or her address.2. The nature of the fact attested.3. The occasion and disposition of the hearers to whom it was given.4. The design or motives of the witness.5. The use of concurrent testimony. When these criteria are met, and are consistent with experience, a high level of persuasion may be achieved. -(James L. Golden et al., The Rhetoric of Western Thought: From the Mediterranean World to the Global Setting, 8th ed. Kendall Hunt, 2003)Testimony of Condoleezza RiceOn August 6, 2001, over a month before 9/11, during the summer of threat, President Bush received a Presidential Daily Briefing (PDB) at his Crawford, Texas ranch indicating that bin Laden might be planning to hijack commercial airliners. The memo was entitled Bin Laden Determined to Strike inside US, and the entire memo focused on the possibility of terrorist attacks inside the US. In testimony before the 9/11 Commission, Condoleezza Rice, National Security Advisor to President Bush, stated to the commission that she and Bush considered the August 6th PDB as just an historical document and stated that it was not considered a warning. -(D. Lindley Young, The Modern Tribune, April 8, 2004) Richard Whately on Matters of Fact and OpinionObserving that argument from testimony is related mostly to jurisprudence, [Richard] Whately [1787-1863] observes two kinds of Testimony that can be used to support the truth of a premise: testimony regarding matters of fact, in which a witness testifies to matters verified by the senses, and testimony regarding matters of opinion, in which a witness offers a judgment based on common sense or deduction. As a form of argument from signs, testimony convinces by presenting evidence of an effect from which a cause or condition can be inferred. -(Nan Johnson, Nineteenth-Century Rhetoric in North America. Southern Illinois University Press, 1991)The Testimony of WitnessesContemporary rhetoric includes a kind of testimony that was absent from ancient considerations: statements by persons who were physically present at an event. The authority of proximate witnesses derives not from their wisdom or their professional expertise but from the modern presumption that evidence provided by the senses is reliable and credible. . . .The worth of testimony offered by proximate witnesses must pass several tests. First, a witness must be in a position to observe the events in question. Second, conditions must be such that a witness can adequately perceive an event. Third, the witnesss state of mind at the time must be conducive to her accurate observation and reporting. If this is not the case, her testimony must be modified accordingly. Fourth, in keeping with modern faith in empirical evidence, testimony offered by a proximate witness is more valuable than evidence offered by someone who was not present. -(Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee, Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2004) Pronunciation: TES-ti-MON-ee